Unit 10: Higher Education System mind map

Takshashila, Nalanda, Vikramasila and the ancient scholars and their works.

Centres of learning

Takshashila, Nalanda and Vikramasila

Each ancient centre is remembered for one thing.

• Takshashila: Panini and Kautilya (Chanakya) studied there. Teachers charged fees.
• Nalanda: religious and secular teaching, including Vedas, grammar, logic, medicine.
• Vikramasila: founded by Dharmapala; centre of Tantric Buddhism; six colleges; ties to Tibet.
• Navadwip: Nyaya, literature and tantra.

Nalanda did not discourage rival traditions. Vikramasila is linked with Atisa Dipankara, who went to Tibet. Sri Chaitanya lived centuries later and is not associated with Takshashila. Monasteries (viharas) were where monks and nuns meditated, debated and studied.

When India led in learning

The Gupta period is called the golden age of ancient learning.

• Centres: Nalanda, Taxila and Valabhi.
• Learning methods: memorisation, critical analysis, story telling.
• In the Vedic age both men and women had access to education.

NTA keyed the Gupta period for 'India became a centre of higher learning'. Lectures were backed by debate, and values were taught through stories.

Scholars and their works

Who wrote what

Learn the authors and their books.

• Pingala: Chhandasastra. Panini: Astadhyayi. Patanjali: Mahabhashya.
• Aryabhata: Aryabhatiya. Brahmagupta: Brahmasphuta Siddhanta.
• Bhaskaracharya: Lilavati. Varahamihira: Brihat Samhita.
• Bharata Muni: Natyashastra. Vagbhata: Ashtangasangraha.

Kautilya wrote the Arthashastra. Charaka was the physician, Sushruta the surgeon, Kanada gave atomic theory, Nagarjuna alchemy, Bhartrhari the grammarian tradition. Chronology: Rig Veda, Arthashastra, Aryabhatiya (499 CE), Lilavati (about 1150).

Wood's Despatch, the 1857 universities, the Hunter and Curzon reforms, early colleges and women's education.

From 1854 to 1904

Wood's Despatch and the 1857 universities

The modern Indian university began in 1857.

• Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, set up in 1857 on the model of the University of London.
• Delhi University came later, in 1922.
• Affiliation of colleges to universities began then.
• Wood's Despatch (1854) first gave 'frank and cordial support' to female education.

The 1857 universities were examining and affiliating bodies. Lord Auckland had supported central colleges in places with large populations.

Hunter, Punjab and Curzon

Later reforms pulled the system in two directions.

• Hunter Commission (1882), appointed under Lord Ripon, urged private enterprise in higher education.
• Punjab University, Lahore, 1882, to relieve the load on Calcutta.
• Allahabad University, 1887.
• Curzon: Shimla conference 1901, Indian Universities Commission 1902, Indian Universities Act 1904.

The 1901 conference recommended thorough reform of universities, a Director-General of education and coordinated examination rules. Calcutta was the largest university in Curzon's early years. The first official educational policy statement followed Curzon's reforms.

Early colleges and women's education

Match colleges to founders and firsts.

• Central Hindu College, Banaras: Annie Besant, 1898, religious and moral education.
• Fergusson College: Deccan Education Society.
• Calcutta opened all examinations to women in 1878.
• Bethune School began college classes for women in 1879.

Kadambini Ganguly and Chandramukhi Basu passed the B.A. in 1883, the first women graduates. Macaulay replaced Persian with English as the administrative language.

Order of universities

Chronology questions repeat. Learn the founding years.

• Calcutta, Bombay, Madras 1857. Punjab 1882. Allahabad 1887.
• SNDT 1916, Patna 1917, Osmania 1918, Aligarh 1920.
• Rangoon 1920, Lucknow 1921, Delhi 1922, Nagpur 1923, Annamalai 1929.
• SNDT is dated 1916 in one item and 1951 (statutory recognition) in another.

Follow the key given for each item. Patna came before Osmania, and Osmania before Aligarh.

Radhakrishnan, Mudaliar, Kothari, the National Knowledge Commission and the national policies on education.

Commissions

Commissions and what they said

Match each commission to its chair and its main idea.

• University Education Commission 1948: Radhakrishnan. Led to the UGC.
• Secondary Education Commission 1952: Mudaliar.
• Education Commission 1964: Kothari, reported 1966. 10+2+3, three-language formula.
• National Knowledge Commission 2005: Sam Pitroda.

The Radhakrishnan Commission was independent India's first, and it recommended rural universities and care for women students. The 10+2+3 structure from Kothari entered the 1968 policy. Calcutta University Commission 1917: Michael Sadler. Narayana Murthy chaired the committee on corporate participation. Punnayya chaired the one on funding central universities.

Committees

Know the committee and its subject.

• Kunzru committee: medium of instruction at university level.
• Sapru Committee: move education to the Concurrent List (done by the 42nd Amendment, 1976).
• Hansa Mehta Committee: curricula for boys and girls.
• UGC Committee on Welfare, 1965: chair T. Sen.

The NKC also recommended needs-blind admissions for national universities and vice-chancellors chosen on academic and administrative credentials.

National policies

NPE 1986

NPE 1986 set a national system of education.

• Common core and the 10+2+3 structure.
• Expansion of open universities and distance education.
• Autonomous colleges and state councils of higher education.
• It did not call for complete privatisation.

Its thrusts on higher education were consolidation, teacher training, autonomous colleges and strengthened research.

NEP 2020

NEP 2020 aims for multidisciplinary, autonomous institutions.

• Academic Bank of Credit for credit transfer.
• Multiple entry and multiple exit.
• Single-stream institutions to be phased out.
• Stand-alone teacher education institutions to become multidisciplinary by 2030.

HECI has verticals; the General Education Council frames graduate attributes and the qualification framework, while accreditation is separate. NETF sets standards for digital teaching. NEP wants lower student-teacher ratios, and faculty are not generally transferable. NCrF: level 8 after a doctorate, 5.5 after a three-year degree.

UGC, AICTE, NCTE, NAAC, how a university is run, and the schemes that fund it.

Regulators

UGC, AICTE, NCTE, NAAC

Each body regulates one area.

• UGC: first set up 1953, statutory by UGC Act 1956; inaugurated by Maulana Azad.
• AICTE: technical education; established 1945, statutory 1987.
• NCTE: teacher education; statutory 1995.
• NAAC: accredits higher education; set up 1994 by the UGC, non-statutory.

UGC functions: recognise institutions, maintain quality, give grants. It does not appoint vice-chancellors. Sequence: UGC 1953, JNU 1969, IGNOU 1985, NAAC 1994. AIU replaced the Inter-University Board in 1973. ICSSR funds social science research.

How a university is run

Authorities and officers

Know who approves what.

• Academic Council: approves courses and programmes.
• Executive Council: approves selection committee recommendations.
• Board of Management: principal executive authority with statutory function.
• Board of Studies: drafts syllabi.

In a state university the Vice-Chancellor leads the executive. A central university is set up only by Parliament. Hierarchy in a central university: Visitor (President), Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor, Dean, Head of Department.

States and schemes

Central schemes reach states and institutions.

• RUSA: equity, access and excellence; asks for state higher education councils.
• Andhra Pradesh set up one of the first state councils.
• SPARC: collaboration with the best institutions in the world.
• INSPIRE: run by the Department of Science and Technology.

NITI Aayog replaced the Planning Commission in 2015. The Faculty Recharge Programme addressed faculty shortage. RPS is an AICTE scheme for research in engineering.

SWAYAM, SWAYAM Prabha, radio and television, and the digital academic records.

Platforms

SWAYAM and its coordinators

SWAYAM is the national MOOCs platform.

• Full form: Study Webs of Active-Learning for Young Aspiring Minds.
• Launched 2017; courses free, fee only for certificate.
• Four quadrants: e-tutorial, e-content, assessment, discussion forum.
• Up to 40 percent of a semester's credits can come from SWAYAM.

National Coordinators include UGC (non-technical postgraduate), CEC (undergraduate), NPTEL (engineering), NIOS (school) and IIM Bangalore (management). Not all SWAYAM courses give credit.

Broadcast and records

Match each initiative to its medium.

• Swayam Prabha: DTH education channels.
• Gyan Vani: educational FM radio network by IGNOU.
• Gyan Darshan: educational television channel by IGNOU.
• NAD: online store of academic awards. APAAR: One Nation One Student ID.

Shodh Sindhu gives access to e-resources; Shodh Gangotri hosts research synopses; Shodh Shuddhi checks plagiarism; FOSSEE promotes free software. NEAT uses AI for personalised learning. Channel 03 Prabodh, 04 Saaraswat, 05 Prabandhan, 06 Vidhik.

Value education, the skills framework, the UGC plagiarism rules, and the challenges of higher education.

Values and skills

Promoting values

Values are promoted by example and participation.

• Participative leadership suits promoting human values.
• Mentoring by senior faculty has great potential.
• Yoga and wellness centres give holistic value education.
• Universal values: non-violence, peace, righteous conduct.

Value development stages run from collection through assessment. The UGC scheme on human rights and values does not set up wellness centres in schools.

NSQF and skill schemes

NSQF is competency based, with ten levels.

• Level 8 is equivalent to a Master's degree.
• PMKVY is the flagship scheme, run by NSDC.
• Sector Skill Councils are incubated by NSDC.
• Takshashila is the NSDC portal for trainers and assessors.

Skills plus education are needed for employment; education alone is not enough.

Plagiarism and challenges

UGC Plagiarism Regulations 2018

Penalties depend on the similarity percentage.

• Up to 10 percent: no penalty.
• Above 10 to 40: Level 1. Above 40 to 60: Level 2. Above 60: Level 3.
• Student: Level 1 revise in six months; Level 2 debarred one year; Level 3 registration cancelled.
• Faculty Level 2: one increment and bar on supervising for two years.

Faculty Level 3 means two successive increments denied, above 60 percent. The questions give percentages like 44, 48, 62, 76, so place each in its band.

Issues and trade

Challenges are often grouped as the three Es.

• Expansion, Equity, Excellence.
• World-class universities need autonomy, focused funding, independent outcomes.
• Barriers to access: language of instruction, economic status, gender discrimination.
• GATS treats higher education as a tradable service.

Withdrawal of public funding encourages private enterprise to expand. WTO negotiations treat education as a trade commodity and are not about education as a free service.